what topology aims to balance redundancy with easier management and cost-effectiveness?

Abstract

Due to the transition to renewable free energy sources and the increasing share of electric vehicles and smart grids, batteries are gaining in importance. Battery management systems (BMSs) are required for optimal, reliable operation. In this paper, existing BMS topologies are presented and evaluated in terms of reliability, scalability and flexibility. The decentralisation of BMSs and associated advantages are shown. A scalable, reconfigurable BMS based on a distributed compages of cocky-organized, locally controlled nodes is proposed. For distributed system control, producers, batteries and consumers each are equipped with a local microcontroller based control unit, which monitors and controls the local parameters with its own computing and communication resource. Features, advantages and challenges to overcome of the proposed approach are described.

Keywords

• Renewable free energy sources
• Bombardment management systems
• Multi-microcomputer system
• Topology
• Scalability
• Reconfigurable architectures
• Availability
• Decentralized control
• Fault tolerant control
• Controller Area Network
• Distributed management

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Introduction

With an increasing share of renewable energy sources and electrical vehicles, batteries are one of the most utilized energy storage media [1]. Bombardment utilise is essential for maintaining the free energy balance and for improving the quality equally well as the reliability of power supply in renewable free energy systems [2]. A critical challenge facing the widespread adoption of battery technology is to ensure uninterrupted, fail-safe power supply and safety, optimal battery operation to extend battery life. Battery Direction Systems (BMSs) are used for these purposes and provide the interfaces between energy producers, consumers and batteries (Fig. 1). They administer arrangement control and direction with regard to energy storage and transmission. Main functions of the BMS include charge and belch control, balancing, input/output current and voltage monitoring, temperature control, battery protection, error diagnosis and evaluation [3].

Fig. 1.

Principle architecture of a BMS indicating participants, communication and power menstruation

Full size paradigm

For this purpose, the post-obit functional requirements are relevant for a BMS:

• Current, voltage and temperature measurement

• State of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) decision

• Communication

• Robustness against electromagnetic interference (EMI)

• Redundancy of the organization in terms of functional safety

• Electric isolation of the functional systems

• Balancing [4, 5]

Besides the BMS unit, which includes information acquisition, status monitoring and control, the topology of the BMS is crucial for big-calibration battery direction. The topology covers the electrical connection of the individual batteries or battery cells, the control structure and the communication architecture. Information technology straight influences costs, ease of installation, maintenance, measurement accuracy and above all the reliability of the organisation.

This newspaper first describes existing BMS topologies together with relevant literature and outlines their benefits and limitations. The proposed classification divides the BMS topologies into

• centralized,

• modularized,

• distributed and

• decentralized.

The identified trend towards the decentralization of BMSs is shown: Centralized BMSs with a single control unit [half-dozen,7,8] are increasingly replaced by a decentralized management, whereby sensor, control and computing resource are distributed [9,10,11,12,thirteen]. The characteristics of the control strategies are therefore analysed and compared.

An arroyo for a fully decentralized, distributed BMS based on autonomous, locally operating units is proposed. The characteristics and advantages of the proposed approach are described. The requirements, especially in terms of system control and direction, are analysed and challenges to be overcome are identified. The aim is to provide a holistic overview of the features of the proposed BMS and the resulting organization requirements.

Battery Direction System Topologies

Centralized

In centralized BMSs, the unabridged functionality is integrated into a unmarried module, which is connected to the batteries or battery cells via several wires (see Fig. 2) [xiv]. The centralized BMS provides single cell voltage, string electric current and temperature measurement.

A centralized BMS is described in [15] based on a single chip. The protective function is divided into two stages. The beginning phase monitors voltage, current, temperature and coordinates the balancing part. Another approach for a centralized BMS is provided in [16]. Advantages of centralized BMS include toll-effectiveness too as maintenance and repair. If merely a single integrated circuit is used, costs are reduced and errors are hands detected. Another advantage is the accuracy, as centralized BMS use the same offsets for all cells. The clearly defined coordination construction provides effective system control.

Fig. 2.

Reduced block diagram of a BMS based on centralized topology

Full size image

Disadvantages include the large number of long cable connections, which considerably increase the risk of short circuits. Furthermore, inputs can easily be mixed upwards and incorrectly connected and connections can go loose, which increases the susceptibility to errors.

Another disadvantage is the lack of scalability and flexibility of the organization architecture. In primal master-slave BMSs, the maximum number of batteries is strictly predefined. During organisation development, the number of actively used batteries is fixed and can usually only exist changed afterward by changing the wiring. Adding boosted cells is not possible at all if all input connectors are used or vice versa, some inputs might remain unused. In addition, only predefined, generally single battery technologies are supported and combinations thereof are not feasible.

Furthermore, the master controller is a single bespeak of failure. The unabridged organization control depends on the mistake-free function of the principal controller. In case of failure or malfunction of the master controller, the entire system performance is endangered. This is a significant disadvantage, peculiarly with regard to a reliable, uninterruptible power supply.

Modularized

Modularized BMSs are characterized past several identical modules, which are continued to the individual batteries or battery cells via cables, similar to centralized BMS (Fig. 3). The BMS modules provide data acquisition (single cell voltage, current, temperature) and communication interfaces to the other BMS modules. Often 1 of the modules is assigned to the part of master or a separate module serves equally master. The principal module controls the entire bombardment pack and communicates with the remainder of the organisation, while the other modules but record the measured information and transmit it to the principal.

A modularized BMS with the aim of improving the functioning of BMS to provide a safe, reliable and toll-efficient solution for smart grids and electric vehicles is proposed in [3]. The modularized BMS for electric vehicles presented in [17] focuses on effective single cell monitoring and balancing for a large number of battery cells with comparatively small size and complexity. An advantage of modularized BMSs is the improved manageability. The modules are placed close to the batteries, which avoids long cables. To improve functional condom, the function of the BMS can be easily replicated on the individual modules. The scalability is as well increased compared to centralized BMSs. If the battery pack is extended by further cells, another BMS module is but appended.

The number of inputs of the BMS modules is still stock-still and under sure circumstances, inputs may remain unused. In improver, the costs of modularized BMSs are college. Compared to centralized BMS, the failure of one BMS module does non endanger the entire bombardment operation. Lacking battery cells or batteries are only removed from the organization, reducing chapters but maintaining operation.

Fig. 3.

Block diagram of a BMS based on a modular topology

Full size image

Distributed

In distributed BMSs, each cell string or cell is equipped with its ain BMS module. The Cell BMS modules provide measurement of operating parameters, balancing and communication. The BMS controller handles the calculation and communication (Fig. 4).

A distributed BMS divided into a master and several battery modules for real-fourth dimension monitoring and reporting of battery operating weather is proposed in [eighteen]. This approach combines cardinal control direction and distributed data collection. In order to reduce costs and time-to-marketplace and to increase flexibility, scalability and adaptability, a distributed BMS with smart bombardment jail cell monitoring is presented in [19]. The smart battery jail cell monitoring consists of electronics for monitoring and a data transmission interface for bidirectional communication with the superordinate BMS. The BMS functions as the master and controls energy storage at organisation level.

Fig. iv.

Block diagram of a BMS based on a distributed topology

Full size image

The distributed BMS simultaneously offers a loftier level of reliability and robustness every bit well every bit a cost-efficient development procedure, allowing a significant reduction in the cost of the terminal bombardment pack. The advantages of distributed BMSs compared to centralized and modularized topologies are scalability and flexibility. No maximum number of inputs is defined and cells tin exist added or removed even after installation. This allows like shooting fish in a barrel hardware integration for homogeneous modules. Scaling the bombardment pack to the size required for different applications does not require whatsoever changes to the hardware or software of the modules–merely boosted bombardment cell modules accept to be assembled or removed. Furthermore, the single point of failure of centralized approaches is avoided. Local control of each prison cell additionally increases rubber. Sensor information but needs to exist processed for the local cell and mandatory actions can be triggered immediately. A further advantage is the loftier measurement accuracy, which is achieved by the specialization of the battery cell module. Furthermore, shorter connecting wires enable more than accurate voltage measurement and better interference amnesty. Maintenance or replacement of defective parts is facilitated by the modular, distributed architecture.

Disadvantageous are the increased costs for the BMS, every bit a separate BMS module is required for each cell and for most applications also an boosted main module.

Decentralized

The decentralization of BMSs is a possible solution to overcome the disadvantages of cardinal control structures. Decentralized BMSs consist of several equal units, which provide the entire functionality locally and apart. Each of the individual BMS units is able to operate independently of the remaining ones. Communication lines between the units enable information substitution and task coordination between the units. They are used in several decentralized BMS (Fig. v). While this architecture offers advantages like scalability, minimal integration effort and increased functional safety, the evolution requires new methods. Decentralized BMSs are further subdivided into communication-less, wireless and wired advice based topologies. A decentralized BMS without communication requirements is proposed in [20]. The smart cells work locally and apart, which increases safety and reliability.

A decentralized BMS based on the droop control for a serial connection of battery cells is presented in [21]. Droop control is practical to ensure power sharing amongst connected components. Droop characteristics are used for the power distribution, which correspond to V-I characteristics in voltage droop control. They make up one's mind the required output/input current co-ordinate to the bodily voltage deviation. Physically the droop control behaves similar an output resistance. Therefore the droop characteristic is as well chosen virtual resistance. [22, 23] Droop command offers loftier reliability due to the decentralized architecture and the communication-less control. A drawback of the droop-based control is the imprecise control [24]. With the consideration of line resistance in a droop-controlled organisation, the output voltage of each converter cannot be exactly the aforementioned. Therefore, the output electric current sharing accuracy is afflicted. In addition, the voltage difference increases with the load due to the droop characteristic [25].

Due to the possibility of cable breaks in wired communication systems like CAN or I²C, BMS approaches based on wireless communication are adult [26]. As a possible solution, [26] proposes a distributed and decentralized wireless BMS based on an Internet of Things (IoT) network.

Fig. 5.

Block diagram of a decentralized BMS

Full size prototype

In [27], a fully decentralized BMS is proposed, whereby the unabridged BMS functionality is integrated into the cell direction units. One prison cell management unit of measurement per jail cell is used, providing local sensing and management capabilities autonomously and arrangement-level functionality by coordination via communication. A Tin autobus is used for wired communication, which enables broadcast communication between the cells. The major advantage of decentralized BMSs is the absence of a central control unit, on which error-free role the entire operation depends. Furthermore, the scalability and flexibility are advantageous. The number of inputs is non fixed and tin can be extended/reduced even after installation.

A challenging characteristic is the distributed system control based on the equal, parallel-operating and democratic nodes. In improver, it has to exist ensured that the single signal of failure is not simply shifted only eliminated. For a reliable system, a holistic arroyo is required.

Overview and Evaluation of the Bombardment Management System Topologies

The decentralization of the BMS topology results in functionality distributed to several individual units. The functional units are closer to the battery/bombardment cell and more elaborately equipped to work independently. Operation is becoming increasingly independent of a fundamental coordination unit of measurement and the failure of individual functional units has a minor bear on on the system function. As a result, the reliability of the system is improved. The scalability increases with rising decentralisation. The number of batteries/bombardment cells is not limited by pre-defined inputs merely is variable even after the initial layout. Individual batteries/battery cells can be added or removed. A variable number of batteries results in enhanced flexibility. The BMS is adaptable to the requirements of a wide range of applications.

Table 1 summarizes the evaluation of existing BMS topologies in terms of reliability, scalability and flexibility. Compliance with the criteria is evaluated, where ++ means total compliance, + partial compliance, 0 neutral, – partially not satisfied, and – – not satisfied at all.

Table 1. Evaluation of existing BMS topologies in terms of reliability, scalability and flexibility

Full size table

Decentralized Battery Direction System Based on Cocky-Organizing Nodes

The proposed organization is fully decentralized and consists, in contrary to the proposed approaches, of three types of modules: renewable free energy producers, batteries and consumers. All components are connected together with a common power line and at to the lowest degree i global communication jitney (Fig. 6).

Fig. half dozen.

Cake diagram of the decentralized BMS

Total size image

Distributed Command

For distributed, autonomous control, each bombardment, producer and consumer is equipped with its own local command unit of measurement (LCU). The LCU includes:

• Electric current, voltage and temperature measurement to record actual operating parameters,

• a communication interface for information commutation between the components.

• a microcontroller for calculation, data management and evaluation,

• a DC/DC converter with target current and target voltage values which are adjustable during functioning, and

• a relay which is opened in case of failures to avoid safety critical voltage levels or for maintenance purposes.

Producers and consumers use the LCU to provide their operating parameters for load/generation forecasts and for voltage control. Batteries provide the ability to absorb excess ability or deliver missing power and thus are able to control the system. Therefore, additional algorithms for organisation control and leader election are implemented on the LCUs of the batteries.

The implemented software for system control manages both the actual operating data such as current, voltage and temperature and the organization states resulting from previous measurements. The SOC and the SOH are determined. In addition, the bombardment fitness (BF) is divers. The BF is a numerical value based primarily on SOC, SOH, number of charge cycles, time of concluding charge/discharge, the arrangement-broad normalized chapters and the actual operating parameters. Taking into account the optimum operating range of the respective battery technology, the battery condition is evaluated. The criteria, e.g. SOC or temperature, are weighted. The criteria weighting can be adjusted depending on the battery technology and the system status. The adjustment of the weighting provides the basis for system optimization according to various criteria such as toll minimization, maximum safety or availability. The BF enables a system-broad definite evaluation of different bombardment technologies. In turn, this enables the combination of unlike battery technologies in a single organisation. The combination of different bombardment technologies offers advantages including optimization of the system control, extending battery life and increasing system reliability [28]. Additionally, it offers a second life application to a wide range of batteries [29, 30].

The BF is too a decision criterion for the leader election. The participating nodes work apart and locally and control the organization in a collaborative mode. Highly parallel computer systems exist for solving complicated mathematical problems. In dissimilarity, the challenging task in the context of the proposed approach is to structure, intelligently equip and network the nodes to such an extent that the overall organization and its control interact harmoniously. The LCUs are interacting in the physical domain in their control task while advice latency for negotiations is high compared to the control requirements. In add-on, in reality the nodes practice non piece of work perfectly synchronized but asynchronously [31]. Therefore, the development of a system command consisting of decentralized, autonomous, distributed, asynchronous nodes is a non-niggling, challenging task. The target of the decentralized control construction is to make the system independent of the error-complimentary function of a component. This can be achieved if the role of the cardinal control unit of measurement is non permanently assigned to a single component.

Therefore, instead of the decentralized organization control beingness distributed to all nodes, the approach of the system command coordinated by a temporary primary which gets reassigned on a regular footing was chosen. One LCU of the batteries is chosen as the temporary fundamental control unit of measurement applying a leader election algorithm. The temporary central command unit of measurement determines the required charge/discharge power of the remaining battery nodes, taking into account their BF. In case of failure, malfunction or changes in control adequacy, one of the battery nodes is selected equally the new fundamental control unit of measurement. As a result, the single bespeak of failure of existing centralised approaches is avoided.

Communication

Communication between the peer nodes is the central to the democratic, local command of the decentralized BMS. For autonomous decision making and system control, the nodes communicate their operating parameters and piece of work on a system-wide consistent database. A suitable communication methodology is required to enable fast and energy-efficient advice between the nodes. Furthermore, a robust communication architecture is required to withstand the harsh environments of e.m. automotive applications. In addition, establishing a secure communication protocol betwixt the individual nodes is essential for the safe functioning of the BMS. Therefore a well-proven, robust, noise-free, fast and reliable advice engineering science is required. To achieve a minimum of integration endeavor, an compages with minimal wiring harness is required for the distributed topology.

A bus-based communication architecture achieves higher bandwidth and enables broadcast communication between the nodes, which is advantageous for the leader ballot and system control. Controller Area Network (CAN) is a robust autobus-based circulate communication technology. It is peculiarly suitable for applications with a pocket-size amount of information to be exchanged. Furthermore, CAN is a bulletin-based network and each node is equipped with a filtering machinery that filters letters based on their identifiers. Thus, but messages relevant to the node are considered. Due to its characteristics CAN is called as communication technology for the decentralized BMS. For first implementations a advice based on a single CAN bus is used. For hereafter developments dual CAN, CAN in combination with optical information transmission via polymer optical cobweb (POF) and CAN combined with Ethernet are conceivable approaches providing diverse redundancy to increment organization reliability and availability.

Suitability for Agile Balancing

The decentralized BMS is able to back up active balancing. On the i mitt, weaker batteries are protected by taking the BF and thus also the SOC into account when setting the target value for individual energy delivery. In add-on, batteries with higher SOC are fix to higher target currents during discharge while those with lower SOC absorb higher charging currents. On the other hand, the controllable relays allow individual batteries to be disconnected from the power line. An additional ability line between the batteries could additionally enable constructive, active balancing by connecting the batteries to be balanced (Fig. 7). This compages enables i-to-i, one-to-many and manyto-many balancing at a voltage level controlled by the DC/DC converter [32]. Taking into account the BF, the arrangement–wide standardised nominal capacity and the SOC, the more than powerful batteries supply the weaker ones.

Fig. 7.

Additional lines and individually controllable relays enable one-to-1, one-to-many and many-to-many active balancing

Total size image

Scalability and Integration

The number of inputs and thus of participants is not fixed in the proposed decentralized BMS. A minimum of 2 batteries is recommended for a reliable supply. Adding and removing nodes is possible after installation and during functioning. Both hardware and software are designed for effective integration [33]. The variable number of participants, which can exist adjusted and changed during performance, allows the system to be adapted to requirements changing over its lifetime. Optimizations in terms of e.yard. cost efficiency, prophylactic or maximum service life can be implemented or changed. The reconfigurable architecture increases reliability, operation and flexibility of the proposed BMS [34].

Flexibility

The variable number of participants and the possibility to use and combine different battery technologies increases the flexibility of the organization. Existing approaches tend to specialize in a unmarried battery technology [35, 36]. In club to amend the operation and energy density, new battery technologies are constantly being developed [37,38,39]. The BMS is flexible and constructive in adapting to changing conditions for optimal and safe battery operation. The software is effectively expandable and software updates during operation support the effective integration and potentially necessary software adjustments supporting new bombardment technologies [xl].

Fields of Application

The flexible, scalable, reconfigurable architecture opens upwards various fields of awarding including uninterruptible power supply, electrical vehicles, (islanded) dc microgrids, grid support for peak load shaving or load management. The applications consequence in different requirements for the BMS. For electric vehicles, for example, loftier availability, safety and energy density with minimum size and weight are required. For islanded micro grids, the relevant criteria include effective service lifetime, price efficiency, reliability and resistance to environmental effects. In add-on, various bombardment technologies and combinations thereof are supported. The combination of different battery technologies improves the system command as well equally the bombardment life of various applications [41]. Furthermore, 2nd life and second apply applications are possible for a large number of batteries [30].

Determination

In this newspaper, existing BMS topologies were presented and discussed in terms of scalability, flexibility and reliability (cf. Tabular array 1). A decentralized, distributed BMS based on self-organized and locally operating nodes was proposed. The organization control is distributed amid the LCUs, which record operating parameters and provide their own computing and communication capacities. Possible approaches for the coordination of a control system based on a many-microcomputer system were suggested. Advice requirements were analysed and suitable technologies were selected. The resulting flexible architecture allows optimized system configurations for a wide range of applications, adaptability to newly developed battery technologies and multi-criteria optimizations.

Outlook

Future developments will farther optimize the reliability and fault tolerance of the system. Several communication technologies are combined to attain diverse redundancies. As a fallback strategy in case of communication failure, the implementation of a droop-based control is planed. It is avoided to move merely the unmarried point of failure. The goal is to avoid a single signal of failure holistically on the organization. Additionally a strategy for agile charge balancing during performance under consideration of the BF, which does not require boosted hardware, will be developed.

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Acknowledgement

The authors thank North. Balbierer and M. Farmbauer for helpful discussions and T. Singer for developing a test surroundings to validate DC/DC converters.

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1. Faculty of Electric Technology and Data Technology, Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany

   Andrea Reindl, Hans Meier & Michael Niemetz

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Correspondence to Andrea Reindl , Hans Meier or Michael Niemetz .

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Reindl, A., Meier, H., Niemetz, M. (2020). Scalable, Decentralized Battery Management System Based on Cocky-organizing Nodes. In: Brinkmann, A., Karl, W., Lankes, S., Tomforde, S., Pionteck, T., Trinitis, C. (eds) Compages of Computing Systems – ARCS 2020. ARCS 2020. Lecture Notes in Information science(), vol 12155. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/ten.1007/978-3-030-52794-5_13

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